Trust – What is it and why does it matter?

Trust is intangible and we can’t touch it. However, it plays a highly significant role in shaping our daily lives, with both positive and negative outcomes, as outlined in the following examples: –

• Positive – building personal and business relationships; buying petfood that pet owners believe will actively support their pet’s health.
• Negative – regional conflicts; the effect of Dilated Cardiomyopathy (DCM) on sales of “grain free” petfood.

Like all commercial enterprises, trust matters as it drives the success of the global petfood industry. History records that trust in commercial petfood was damaged by the melamine crisis of 2007 – 2008. This resulted in the largest and most costly recall in petfood industry history and the deaths of 000’s of pets. Anecdotal evidence also indicates that more pet owners became interested in making “homemade” petfood.

Trust or mistrust affects all aspects of business performance both internally and externally: –

• Internal effects – engaged workforce, with greater employee retention and increased productivity.
• External effects – customer brand loyalty; supplier relationships; relationship with regulatory authorities.

Collectively these trust / mistrust effects reach across all stakeholders involved in the petfood supply chain, including willingness of pet owners to purchase a petfood brand.

Trust is also important when it comes to innovation and market implementation of new products and impacts success, this is an important factor when we consider the need to implement sustainable raw materials and new food processing technologies in the petfood industry.

Humanisation of petfood and future evolution

Commercial petfood dates to the 1860’s with Spratt’s dog biscuits, with wet petfood entering the market in the 1920’s and dry kibble petfood appearing in the 1950’s. This indicates that petfood innovation is not new and continues to drive market growth now and in future.

For many years, the concept of humanisation has driven both market growth and innovation in the petfood industry and this trend is expected to continue in future. The term “humanisation” of petfood does not have a formalised, harmonised definition and means different things to different people. For examples, it includes concepts like: –

• Pet owner perception of pets as “members of the family”
• Formulation of ingredients that promote health and wellness
• Expectation of human food industry standards e.g., “human” grade ingredients; human food industry manufacturing, quality, and safety standards
• Adoption of human beliefs e.g., organic ingredients, “free range” poultry, vegan / vegetarian and flexitarian food.

Why trust in petfood matters more than ever.

Trust in food and petfood is essential to ensure it is safe, nutritious, legal and of the quality expected. When any of these fails, trust is damaged and we, our pets and the petfood industry businesses suffer undesirable effects like illness or we lose business. Ensuring safety, nutritional adequacy, legality, and quality requires a petfood system.

In general terms, a (human) food system can be considered as a complex interlinked web containing: stakeholders e.g., consumers, food producers, retailers and regulatory authorities; processes e.g., food manufacturing, distribution, retail; and external influences e.g., climate, diseases, environment, and consumer beliefs that affect the production and consumption of food. This concept also applies to petfood, but why is it important?

Clearly trust in safe, legal, and nutritious petfood of the quality expected is key to both pet owners and petfood manufacturers. However, trust is more likely to become of increasing importance as the industry faces up to challenges in the 21st Century.

Petfood in the 21st century faces new opportunities and challenges.

Based on ongoing humanisation, sustainability is a key trend that is likely to translate into the petfood industry on a growing basis, as pet owners become increasingly aware of issues like climate change and raw material availability. As a concept, sustainability embraces many aspects around a common theme of efficient resource utilisation including land use, greenhouse gas emissions, energy, water, packaging, and ingredients.

In addition to consumers (pet owners) pushing development of sustainability, it is likely that other stakeholders including the petfood manufacturing sector (pet food manufacturers and suppliers), and regulatory authorities will also drive the sustainability agenda. To achieve sustainability goals, it is likely that the petfood industry will implement the use of alternative sustainable ingredients e.g., insect protein, microalgae-based oils, and the possibility of new food processing technologies. In implementing these novel technologies this will align the petfood industry with the human food sector’s sustainability initiatives and further enhance the concept of petfood humanisation.

Whilst the fact that pet owners will be one of the driving forces for sustainability will help ensure engagement with novel technologies (ingredients and food processing), the industry must ensure effective messaging to build trust in these.

Consumer acceptance of alternative food ingredients and novel food processing technologies.

Like all industries, the on-going success of the global petfood industry depends on innovation in other parts of the consumer goods sector, lack of innovation is seen as contributory factors in business failure of companies like Blockbuster and Toys R Us1. We see many examples where innovation in human food systems translate into petfood including the use of ingredients to promote gut health in both humans and pets e.g., probiotics and pre-biotics and technologies like High-Pressure Processing (HPP) used to extend shelf-life and control foodborne pathogens in human foods like guacamole and “raw” petfood.

Often new foods can be seen as “Frankenfood” for example genetically modified food ingredients. Another example of food that faced challenges with consumer acceptance is sushi. Whilst widely accepted in Japan, when first introduced outside the region western consumers were at first reluctant to engage with the concept of eating “raw” fish. However, in the US alone the market value of sushi restaurants was estimated at US$ 22 billion in 20192 indicating how “alternative” foods have been accepted.

Acceptance of sushi has been identified by researchers in the US and Australia as a model in prediction of consumer acceptance of insects3.

A critical success factor in successful implementation of innovative concepts is how we convey and present the benefits and opportunities to consumers who might distrust these, as outlined in the examples above.

The impact of (mis)information sources on trust

Like it or loathe it, we live in the digital era where social media is an important source of (mis)information that we are bombarded with 24 hours a day. This is an important determinant of how we believe in trust.
Depending on how we respond to this information means the difference from positive or negative outcomes and actions. We see this in all walks of daily life from military conflict, how we engage with new products and how we purchase the petfood used to feed our pets daily. An indication of the growing importance of on-line sources of information is indicated in research reported in the USA in April 20214, this showed that use of social media by US adults grew from 5% to 72% in the period 2005 – 2021.

The information we see on-line influences our decision-making process where we have trust or mistrust in an event or a product that affects how we respond, for instance petfood purchasing decisions.

For many years we have known that on-line information sources influence petfood purchasing decisions. For example, a 2021 report5 on “grain free” petfood purchasing decisions in North America and Europe, indicated that over 40% of dog owners used online resources to get their information about pet food with the actual number depending on different demographic information (country, age etc.). This research is also in line with other findings on the importance of online sources, as indicated in a report on the Italian petfood sector6.

These reports also indicate the importance of other information sources including veterinarians, veterinary staff, and pet stores in influencing petfood purchasing decisions.

Whatever information source is used the important factor is that, depending on pet owner perception of the information, it either builds trust in the petfood or damages it.

Due to the interdependencies and complexity of any food system, including petfood, for effective successful change e.g., implementation of sustainable ingredients like insect protein, a “systems approach” is required. This helps us understand the factors and interdependencies that can affect trust in the food that our pets eat. For example, climate change might mean that some “conventional” petfood raw materials are no longer sustainable e.g., fish oil used for health and wellness in petfood or meat from livestock farming. For nutritional adequacy and society demands on sustainability, we might then consider sustainable alternatives like algal oil or insect protein.

Whilst these might be feasible from a technological perspective, successful implementation requires us to adopt a systems approach which considers all stakeholders, processes and external influences outlined above.

One key success factor is consumer (pet owner) engagement. This is fundamental to building trust and enables us to overcome any concerns about the sustainable alternatives and explain the benefits. Consumers are not “homogeneous” in their beliefs and many factors play a key role in how we perceive “new” food / ingredients, for example microalgae, in the food we eat7.

Due to the need to implement change in the human food system e.g., for sustainability, there is a lot of on-going research into trust in food systems, including how we engage and communicate with consumers. This is an area where the petfood industry might benefit in terms engagement with pet owners.

The question is how can we best use social media and other approaches to implement (food) messaging effectively to engage with pet owners and build trust in development and implementation of “next generation” petfood ingredients?

The answer here might also lie in humanization, with the petfood sector adapting and adopting the learnings from consumer engagement in “new” food systems and next generation ingredients. Time will tell!

References
1. Innovate Or Die: How A Lack Of Innovation Can Cause Business Failure viewed on-line on 16th March 2022 at https://www.forbes.com/sites/biancamillercole/2019/01/10/innovate-or-die-how-a-lack-of-innovation-can-cause-business-failure/?sh=4ec902122fcb
2. Market size of the sushi restaurant sector in the United States from 2011 to 2019, with a forecast for 2020 and 2021 https://lb-aps-frontend.statista.com/statistics/1176560/sushi-restaurant-industry-market-size-us/
3. Disgust, sushi consumption, and other predictors of acceptance of insects as food by Americans and Indians; Matthew B. Ruby, Paul Rozin, Disgust, sushi consumption, and other predictors of acceptance of insects as food by Americans and Indians, Food Quality and Preference, Volume 74, 2019, Pages 155-162,
4. Social Media Fact Sheet, April 2021, viewed on-line at Demographics of Social Media Users and Adoption in the United States | Pew Research Center on 3rd March 2022
5. Article Source: Grains on the brain: A survey of dog owner purchasing habits related to grain-free dry dog foods; Banton S, Baynham A, Pezzali JG, von Massow M, Shoveller AK (2021) Grains on the brain: A survey of dog owner purchasing habits related to grain-free dry dog foods. PLOS ONE 16(5): e0250806. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250806
6. Vinassa, M., Vergnano, D., Valle, E. et al. Profiling Italian cat and dog owners’ perceptions of pet food quality traits. BMC Vet Res 16, 131 (2020).
7. Consumer views about the Next Generation proteins for food in Europe, Arvola et al (Nextgen protein Eu project)

Osteoarthritis is one of the most commonly diagnosed joint diseases in ageing dogs and is recognised as the progressive degeneration and remodelling of synovial joints as the cartilage becomes damaged and triggers an inflammatory response which can cause great discomfort. Anderson et al., (2018) estimated 11.4% of dogs over 8 years old were affected by osteoarthritis. Although osteoarthritis has a known genetic influence, the disease can be exacerbated by the dog’s activity levels, diet and their breed, with larger breeds commonly experiencing osteoarthritis at some stage. Glucosamine & chondroitin are ingredients commonly included in complete and complementary pet foods designed for joint health support for senior dogs. Glucosamine regulates the synthesis of collagen in cartilage, whereas chondroitin inhibits the destructive enzyme pathway which breaks down the cartilage and joint fluid (Bhathal et al., 2017). Alongside this, both ingredients contribute towards the creation of glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans, which are recognised for being building blocks for cartilage formation (Beale, 2004). Also supporting the body’s natural anti-inflammatory response is the organic sulphur compound Methylsulphonylmethane (MSM) (Brien et al., 2008).

Supplementation of pet foods with omega-3 fatty acids for a period of 6 months significantly improved the ability of geriatric dogs to rise from a resting position, and improved comfort whilst walking (Roush, 2010). Omega-3 fatty acids have been shown to support the anti-inflammatory response through increasing eicosanoids and reducing the activities of proteoglycan-degrading enzymes. Omega-3 fatty acids are commonly found in ingredients such as marine algae and fish oils. Furthermore, supplementing omega-3 fatty acids to senior dogs can also help support the immune system and positively modulate the gut microbiome when challenged (Fritsch et al., 2010).

Digestive health and fibre

Over time, senior dogs gut microbiota shows a gradual reduction in beneficial bacteria and an increase of facultative anaerobes which can generate an inflammatory response and increase oxidative stress (Pilla and Suchodolski, 2019). Changes in gastrointestinal function can result in inconsistent stool quality, longer colonic transit time and inefficient absorption of nutrients. The inclusion of fermentable fibre within the diet can significantly reduce the risk of enteric infection and improve nutrient absorption to overall improve quality of gut health and stools (Ephraim et al., 2020). Prebiotics such as fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and mannanoligosaccharides (MOS) promote the growth of the ‘good bacteria’, Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium (Swanson et al., 2002). Diets for senior dogs should also contain sufficient fibre to ensure adequate intestinal motility, typically this is included in pet foods with ingredients such as sugar beet pulp.
Cognitive health
Senior dogs may experience age related cognitive decline as a result of oxidative damage caused by free radicals which can lead to dysfunction of neural cells (Head et al., 2007). Dietary antioxidants like vitamins E and C, and selenium may be important in helping to maintain antioxidative defence in older dogs. Cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS) results from irreversible degeneration of the brain beyond normal aging, including changes in brain glucose metabolism and is more severe than age related cognitive decline. Salvin et al., (2010) estimated that 14.2% of dogs 8 years and older are affected by CDS. Prevalence of CDS increases with age but remains under-diagnosed by veterinarians. Dietary supplementation with medium-chain TAG (MCT) has been shown to improve cognitive function in aged dogs (Pan et al., 2010; Pan et al., 2017). There is consideration for the inclusion of omega-3 fatty acids to support cognitive health in ageing dogs.

Both the scientific community and the average consumer are fascinated by the gut microbiome and its implications for overall well-being, with new discoveries further fuelling interest. While much attention has been directed to the human microbiome, emerging research provides exciting insights relevant to companion animals. Furthermore, the expanding humanization of pets trend has many pet owners transposing their purchasing values and preferences onto their furry companions. So as more people take a proactive approach to their health and wellness with microbiome-supporting products, many are also closely monitoring their pets’ gut health and general wellness.

Products with functional ingredients that support the microbiome are increasingly in demand, as they may help address key areas like immune function, digestion, metabolic health and skin and coat characteristics. Notably, 60% of pet owners say they would like the pet foods and treats they purchase to have a digestive health benefit¹.

The Power of Postbiotics

Probiotics are recognized as live microorganisms which, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a benefit on the host². According to research, 58% of global consumers perceive a connection between the function of the bacteria in the gut to wider aspects of well-being3. However, certain processing conditions may compromise the viability and effectiveness of live microorganisms, which can limit the use of probiotics in processed pet foods and treats.

Postbiotics are a breakthrough in microbiome technology, as they are a preparation of inanimate microorganisms and/or their components that confer a health benefit on the host4. Postbiotics can withstand harsh processing conditions and are shelf stable, enabling their inclusion in a wide variety of applications, including pet food, treats and supplements.

Scientific Discovery Drives Product Innovations

Caenorhabditis elegans is a nematode that is being used as a cutting-edge in vivo research model to identify probiotic bacterial strains. The use of C. elegans offers many unique advantages, like its short, 21-day life span, ease of cultivation and a fully sequenced genome. ADM’s Biopolis laboratory has successfully demonstrated that C. elegans is particularly beneficial for the identification of potential probiotic and postbiotic strains that may be associated with various health benefits. Once a bacterial strain demonstrates its potential benefits in the C. elegans model, the probiotic or postbiotic is selected for additional research trials in murine models, humans, dogs and cats.

One strain to undergo rigorous testing is ADM’s proprietary probiotic, BPL1™* (Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis CECT 8145) and its heat-treated counterpart, BPL1™ HT. In multiple animal models and a human clinical trial, the probiotic and postbiotic forms of BPL1™ have been shown to favourably affect markers associated with metabolic health5-10. Another example is ADM’s ES1** (Bifidobacterium longum subsp. longum CECT7347). In preclinical models, ES1** has shown potential to modulate immune responses in animal models and have positive effects on the gut barrier integrity11,12. It also may affect skin and coat characteristics13. Both BPL1™ HT and ES1** HT are materials that can be used in feeds in the European Union and United Kingdom.

The Future in Focus

There remains much to learn about the potential of biotics to support the microbiome, in humans and other animals. For example, researchers are just beginning to understand the implications of the microbiome-gut-brain axis. Scientific evidence points towards an important link between the brain and the microorganisms found in the gut, with an increasing range of health aspects thought to be linked to this bi-directional communication system, including cognition and mental well-being. In an aquatic model of anxiety, zebrafish treated with ES1** and Lactobacillus rhamnosus CECT8361 demonstrated significantly altered swimming patterns and mean swimming speed, and strongly reduced their bottom-dwelling behaviour12. In this model, these behaviours are thought to correlate with a lower state of anxiety, leading the research team to conclude that this particular combination of strains could have interesting applications12.

A deeper understanding of the microbiome-gut-brain axis is especially relevant as heightened stress from global uncertainties continues to plague people and their pets. According to ADM research, 41% of dog owners are concerned about separation anxiety as they spend more time at the office or travelling3. Half (50%) said that being away from home may exacerbate behavioural issues3.

Functional Nutrition Solutions for Microbiome Support

As more consumers accept pets as a part of the family, there is growing demand for premium pet nutrition products. Beyond the complete and balanced diet required of a dog or cat at various life stages, many pet food offerings now feature added functional ingredients to target specific concerns. For instance, fish oil and fish meals rich in omega-3 fatty acids support brain development in growing puppies. Natural antioxidants are linked to immune function support, and prebiotics, probiotics and postbiotics promote gastrointestinal health for pets of all ages. Biotics can help balance the intestinal microbiota, increase nutrient absorption, and may positively impact digestive, immune and metabolic health.

Maintaining a pet’s ideal body weight and body condition is critical, as overweight pets may have a reduced quality of life. Besides portion control and regular exercise, pet owners can support general wellness with novel dietary ingredients.

Consumers typically make incremental changes to their pets’ diet by introducing supplements or treats with functional ingredients. Visual cues can indicate the inner health of a pet, from a shiny coat to clean teeth to log-shaped stool. Microbiome support through biotics and synbiotics – combinations of prebiotics, probiotics and/or postbiotics – can go a long way to maintaining a pet’s quality of life.
Veterinarians, pet nutritionists and other industry thought leaders are key to expanding consumer awareness and understanding of functional and balanced diets. As demand grows for premium pet nutrition products with added functional ingredients, pet brands can gain consumers’ trust with a partner that delivers technical capabilities and science-backed solutions for healthier, happier pets.

*BPL1®(word and logo) is a trademark registered for Biopolis S.L. in the EU, and other countries.
**ES1 (Bifidobacterium longum subsp. longum CECT7347) is used by ADM Biopolis under license from CSIC

References
1Mintel, Pet Food’s Take on Gut Health, June 2021
2FAO/WHO, 2002
3ADM Outside Voice℠
4ISAPP, 2021
5Wernimont; et al. (2020) Frontiers in Microbiology, 11(1266).
6Chenoll; et al. (2014) Genome Announcements, 2(2), e00183-14.
7Martorell; et al. (2016) Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 64(17), 3462-3472.
8Caimari; et al. (2017) Journal of Functional Foods, 38, 251-263.
9Carreras; et al. (2018) Beneficial Microbes, 9(4), 629-641.
10Pedret; et al. (2019) International Journal of Obesity, 43(9), 1863-1868.
9Laparra; et al. (2012) PloS one, 7.
11Martorell; et al. (2021) Antioxidants, 10, 536.
12Valcarce; et al. (2020) Heliyon, 6(5), e03973.
13Navarro-López; et al. (2018) JAMA Dermatology, 154(1), 37-43.

Waste is driving a triple planetary crisis of climate change – according to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

For years, our food production and consumption model followed a take-make-dispose linear system. However, those days are now over. With a bigger push for a circular economy, those in agriculture and aquaculture are adopting new and innovative techniques to begin overhauling global food, feed and pet food systems. But we have a long way to go. In its latest report, UNEP found that an estimated 931 million tonnes of food (17% of total food available) was discarded as waste by households, retailers and food service outlets in 2019(1).

Fortunately, initiatives like the Upcycled Food Association, are working to prevent food waste on this scale in the future. Under current estimates, the initiative could prevent 318 thousand tonnes of food waste per year(2). This rising imperative for zero waste solutions has revolutionised the way pet food is manufactured. Processes such as rendering has enabled the prevention of up to 50% of meat animal waste, with parts used to make protein ingredients for pet food, thereby reducing greenhouse gas emissions(3). Then, there are businesses like biomega® that use leading-edge biotechnology to transform salmon parts into premium ingredients for pet food manufacturers.

The turning point

The company’s CEO, Stig Petersen, recently shared his unique insight into how zero waste principles are evolving within the industry, particularly in response to changing consumer demands and legislation.

“For decades, high quality raw materials from the marine sector have delivered ingredients for feed and pet food next to human food, health and nutrition. We’re at a real turning point in driving the key issue of sustainability, where a larger part of these raw materials can be made available for human health and nutrition,” commented Petersen. “What is meant to be food must be utilised for food where possible and thereby sustainability, in the context of the health and nutrition sector, is certainly no exception. Innovation in process design and manufacturing is at an all-time high and the consumer is more engaged than ever before. It’s clear that logical and robust circular economies are the way forwards, both commercially and for protecting the future of the sector.

“Importantly for brands and product developers, as global consumers get savvier, the umbrella term ‘sustainability’ doesn’t hold the same commercial weight. Consumers want demonstrable proof and action. There’s a marked move towards building a stronger circular economy, removing waste from the equation. This covers areas such as manufacturing and logistics, but innovation can also be found in ingredient sourcing and production too. It’s likely that over the coming year, we will see massive acceleration in technology that directly addresses circular economy principles.”

Reduce, reuse, recirculate

Championing zero waste operations is part of the Norwegian-based company’s ethos – and they are not alone. According to Euromonitor research, many top global packaged food and pet food players have already defined their sustainability approach. Between 2020 and 2021, 80% of those companies identified had committed to reducing impacts on the environment with emissions-based targets(4). This included a stronger focus on renewable energy, sustainable and regenerative agriculture and carbon neutrality.

“We’re proud to be well positioned regarding sustainability at biomega®,” continues Petersen. “Reducing the environmental burden of business has been crucial to our activities and we’ve been in the fortunate position of leading by example. For instance, our business has been certified by aquaculture environmental organisations previously and we have now started the process to achieve ASC certification as testament to our responsible operations. This includes sourcing from approved Atlantic salmon and optimising the use of marine resources.”

Meeting net-zero emissions targets

Known as the green port development, the large-scale project aims to make the Port of Hirtshals a pioneer in sustainability. By 2027, it hopes to offer green energy as standard and operate a smart energy system, where surplus heat can be reused as part of industrial symbiosis(5). Projects like these form part of Denmark’s pledge to reach its 2030 target of 70% emissions reduction and climate neutrality by 2050(6). For biomega®, the biorefinery also assists in Norway’s push to reach net-zero targets by 2050 too(7).

“By upcycling undervalued sidestreams through our enzymatic hydrolysis process into high-quality, premium ingredients for use in petfood, aquaculture and human nutrition applications, biomega® is a part of the responsible consumption and production movement,” explains Petersen. “Aligning with the UN Global Compact and sustainable development goals, we are forging a path that enables pet food manufacturers and brands to choose zero waste from the outset.”

With more than 20 years of investment in its research and development into sustainable processes, biomega® is helping its customers and suppliers work towards a fully traceable and circular marine production system. Its biorefinery in Norway – and soon Denmark – operate to a 24/7 production continuity model using enzymatic hydrolysis. The patented process delivers minimal environmental damage due to its gentle separation system, while utilising every part of the raw material. The company’s year-round production processes seek to deliver consistent yield without hindering quality, making it much more cost-effective for petfood and aquafeed businesses.

“Our manufacturing process enables pet food brands and retailers to benefit from a high-quality peptide for food, treats and snacks. The process involves no added preservatives and retains the superb nutritional benefits from the raw materials, which delivers excellent palatability for cats and dogs,” says Petersen. “Our latest research highlights Salmigo® Protect L60, for instance, can potentially replace glycerine – a nutritionally devoid ingredient – in semi-moist pet snacks. This is a major advantage for petfood applications that want to promote highly nutritional, natural ingredients in their range.”

With all-natural ingredients, companies such as biomega® are not just focusing on what’s most important to pet food brands, but what is the most authentic and sustainable way to move towards a world without waste. Even global consumer surveys suggest that six in ten people say that where and how a product is made is very important to them(8).

Here, the takeaway is clear, as Petersen concludes: “Collaboration to close the loop is needed if we are to reach net zero by 2050 – and sharing that insight is key to preserving our planet’s natural resources. If we close the knowledge gap, closing the loop is not far behind.”

References

1. UNEP, ‘Why humanity needs to overhaul its food system’, February 2022
2. Upcycled Food Association via Pet Food Processing, Sustainable certification will prevent 703 million pounds of food waste, January 2022
3. North American Renderers Association via Pet Food Processing, ‘It’s a necessity’: finding more sustainable ingredient sources for pet food and treats, April 2021
4. Euromonitor International, Passport, Megatrends: From Sustainability to Purpose – Refocus on the planet, March 2021
5. Greenport North, Green value propositions in the Port of Hirtshals, 2022
6. CCPI, Denmark, 2022. https://ccpi.org/country/dnk/
7. Reuters, Norway wealth fun to push firms to have net-zero targets, April 2022
8. Bake Mag, Cargill Trend Tracker Insights, April 2022

Making the most of a healthy and enjoyable life is only possible when our body is defended by an immune system that is nutritionally supported to work at its best. For us and for our pets, the immune system fights harmful bacteria and keeps other toxins that have invaded the body from making us ill. It is a complex and adaptive system that consists of many general functions, with complementary action to support optimum health. Through this adaptive functionality and support, it can develop a memory against infections, infectious agents and foreign substances.

Young animals like puppies and kittens are most susceptible to infections as their immune system is not fully developed yet, because they have had little exposure to external threats like bacteria, viruses and foreign substances. A newborn’s immune defences are supported by the mother’s antibodies which are transmitted during gestation. This maternal protection becomes inadequate about 4 to 8 weeks after birth as the provided antibodies decrease below a protection threshold, resulting in an immunity gap. Provided the right nutrients via proper nutrition, young animals develop their own immune system over time.

During adulthood the dog’s or cat’s immune system remains fully functional provided their daily diet delivers an adequate amount of key nutrients. With older age their immune function begins to decline, resulting in poorer antibody response at senior age (1, 2, 3).

Therefore, throughout all life stages, an optimal supply of key nutritional ingredients in a pet’s diet is the best solution to ensure a high performing immune defence. Providing the proper nutrients has a significant influence on the ability of the immune system to manage disease challenges. Some examples of how different nutrients can help support the immune system to the benefit of the dog or cat are:

• β-carotene and vitamin A stimulate cellular and humoral immune responses.
• Various B vitamins are associated with improved immunity.
• A high concentration of vitamin C stimulates the effectiveness of white blood cells to destroy foreign bacteria.
• Vitamin D controls the activity of T- and B-lymphocytes, which are important in the adaptive immune system.

Functioning of the immune system

(See Figure 1) The body’s natural barriers, such as skin, villi and mucous membranes, play an initial role in the first line of defence against disease challenges. They are part of the so called innate (non-specific) immune system. If however, any undesirable substance or pathogen does manage to invade the animal then the body responds by activating the next steps of the innate (non-specific immune) immune system as well as the adaptive (specific immune) defence mechanism.

Figure 1: A schematic overview of the functioning of the immune system:
1. Microbes invade the body via a wound. 2. Mastocytes release substances that induce inflammation. This causes other immune cells to go to the infected area. 3. Macrophages remove these microbes. 4. Macrophages bind with B- and T-lymphocytes in the lymph nodes. The B-lymphocytes produce antibodies. 5. Antibodies activate other immune cells, such as macrophages and T-killer cells, to attack the invader. 6. T-helper cells lead antibodies and T-killer cells to the infected area. 7. The immune system is fully active.

White blood cells (phagocytes) recognize and destroy pathogens. Specialized phagocytes – macrophages – remove microbes. Natural Killer (NK) cells are large lymphocytes that play a role destroying cells, for example, tumour cells and virus-infected cells. NK cells also secrete cytokines to defend against pathogens. All these activities are part of the innate, immune system.

The specific, adaptive immune system allows the body to respond more efficiently to a repeated attack by similar pathogens. It stores up information, so it can recognize the pathogens should they invade again. The main players in this system are the B- and T-lymphocytes. B-lymphocytes produce antibodies that react with the pathogen. T-lymphocytes activate macrophages when they recognize a threat, which also destroy pathogens.

Table 1: The types of defence mechanism in the immune system

Vitamin A and β carotene

Vitamin A is crucial for both the innate and the adaptive immune system and is of particular importance for its proper development. Phagocytes and T- and B-lymphocytes cannot function properly without vitamin A. Deficiencies are linked to a weakened and delayed immune functioning, such as reduced effectiveness of mucous membranes (4). Adding β carotene to the pet’s diet has been shown to stimulate the cellular and humoral immune response and acts as an antioxidant (5, 10). Through its antioxidant function it enhances the defence system and has been proven by several studies in animals and humans (6, 7). Studies have also revealed that puppies and kittens given β carotene show better innate and adaptive immune responses. β carotene supplementation significantly restores immune responses in older dogs when compared to their age-matched controls and younger counterparts (8). Important to mention is that cats can convert β carotene to vitamin A, but not in sufficient quantities to be helpful, so pre formed vitamin A is essential (5, 9).

B-vitamins

A number of B vitamins are linked to the immune system. Inadequacies of vitamin B6 result in fewer lymphocytes being produced, slowing down antibody reaction time.

Niacin (vitamin B3) is important for healthy skin and mucous membranes. It is particularly important to ensure niacin adequacy in cat diets as they are unable to compensate for a shortfall through synthesis from tryptophan.

Vitamins B6, folic acid and B12 are important in protein formation and various aspects of the immune system, including reduced activity of NK cells and lower production of cells (including basophils and mastocytes) which carry messages in the immune system via the signalling pathways of histamine (11, 12).

Vitamin B1 is involved in the production of cholesterol and fatty acids that support the membrane function, the initial barrier against pathogens (12).

Vitamin C

Dogs and cats can synthesize vitamin C. However, many consider this vitamin as conditionally essential given its function in the immune system and powerful antioxidant support, helping to recycle vitamin E. Vitamin C reduces the tocopheroxyl radical that is formed when vitamin E gets into an oxidized state and therefor is capable of restoring the radical scavenging activity of vitamin E (13). When pets are experiencing periods of high stress, additional vitamin C supplementation is required to ensure its protective function. Vitamin C is also indispensable in the production of collagen, which holds cells together for the protective barrier function.

Vitamin E

Vitamin E is the most important fat-soluble vitamin. It acts as the major antioxidant in plasma, red blood cells and tissues. It neutralizes free radicals and prevents oxidative damage to polyunsaturated fatty acids in cell membranes, among others. Responses of free radicals are associated with responses of the innate immune system. Insufficient vitamin E in the diet affects the functioning of the immune system. Although deficiencies are rare, extra vitamin E in addition to the basic needs of the animal can be beneficial, particularly when diets have increased levels of omega 3 fatty acids, important in helping to control inflammatory responses (14). Studies with additional dietary vitamin E have revealed enhanced functioning of the immune system and reduced risk of infection, especially in older animals (15). These effects are explained by the better functioning of T-cells, lymphocyte multiplication, IL-2 production and T-helper cells (16,17). Vitamin E also modulates humoral immunity. Supplementation supports increase of immunoglobulin and plaque-forming cells.

Vitamin D

Various components of the immune system (B and T cells, macrophages and dendritic cells) contain vitamin D receptors (18). Enzymes convert vitamin D3 into the active vitamin D metabolite, which binds to the receptor and can then influence the immune system (19). Vitamin D activates the production of an important bacteria-fighting peptide in macrophages and barrier cells (20). A deficiency is associated with the improper functioning of macrophages, particularly on how they move around and destroy pathogens.

Vitamin D also regulates the adaptive immune response. It fine tunes T- and B-lymphocytes’ activity to avoid an overreaction of the immune response. Humans with low blood levels of vitamin D have an increased risk of immune disorders resulting from an overly reactive immune system.

Vitamin-Vitamin interaction and effect on immunity

Next to the functions of each individual vitamin, it is also worth mentioning that some of them work synergistically together and strengthen the immune function (21,22).

Vitamin A and vitamin E work synergistically in antibody production and phagocytosis. It is important to keep balance as increasing only one can counteract the immune function.

A similar relation exists between vitamin A and vitamin D. When both are added adequately, they increase phagocytic activity and enhance oxidative burst (23).

As described earlier vitamin C works synergistically with vitamin E as it reduces vitamin E when it is in an oxidized state and as such restores its radical scavenging potential. Addition of both vitamin C and E also inhibits the release of arachidonic acid (24) which results in stimulation of immune cell responses and suppression of tumor growth in both animals and humans (25,26).

Summary

Being human we know that it is crucial to keep ourselves healthy by having an immune system that works flawlessly. The same applies to our beloved pets which, through optimal and balanced nutrition, can keep their immune defence in top shape. As a pet food manufacturer a correct fortification of your pet foods with high quality vitamins is therefore an absolute must. To check the right premix composition and adequate nutrient supply for your pet foods, please contact your local DSM representatives to ensure your customers can enjoy all the benefits of an optimal nutrition!

References

1. Banks K.L. ‘Changes in the immune response related to age’. Symposium on Internal Medicine and the Geriatric Patient. Veterinary Clinic of North America, Small Animal Practice, 11(4) (1981), 683–68
2. Greeley EH, Kealy RD, Ballam JM, Lawler DF and Segre M. ‘The influence of age on the canine immune system’. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology, 55 (1996): 1-10
3. Hayek MG, Massimo SP, Burr JR and Kearns RJ. ‘Dietary vitamin E improves immune functionin cats. In: DP Carey and GA Reinhart (eds), Recent Advantages in Canine and Feline Nutrition, vol. III. IAMS Nutrition Symposium Proceedings (2000): 555 -563
4. Kolb E and Seehawer J. ‘Utilisation, metabolism, significance and use of vitamin A in the dog and cat’. Translation from: Praktischer Tierarzt 82(2) (2001): 98–106
5. Chew BP and Park JS. ‘Carotenoid action on the immune response’. J. Nutr. 134 (2004): 257–261
6. Toll PW, Jewell DE and Novotny B. ‘Oxidative stress and the antioxidant defense system: An overview for practicing veterinarians’. Information Service Hill’s Pet Nutrition
7. Kearns RJ, Loos KM, Chew BP, Massimino S, Burr JR, Hayek M. ‘The effect of age and dietary β-carotene on immunological parameters in the dog’. In: Reinhart GA, Carey DP: Recent Advances in Canine and Feline Nutrition; Iams Symp Proc Vol 3 (2000): 389-401
8. Massimino S, Kearns RJ, Loos KM, Park JS, Chew BP, Adams S and Hayek MG. ‘Effects of age and dietary beta-carotene on immunological variables in dogs’. J Vet Intern Med 17(6) (2000): 835-42
9. Schweigert F,Raila J, Wichert B and Kienzle E. ‘Cats absorb β-carotene, but it is not converted to vitamin A’. J Nutr 132 (2002): 1610–1612
10. Chew BP, Park JS, Wong TS, Kim HW, Weng BC, Byrne KM, Hayek MG and Reinhart GA. ‘Dietary β-carotene stimulates cell-mediated and humoral immune response in dogs’. J Nutr 130 (2000): 1910–1913.
11. Fordyce HH, Callan B and Giger U. ‘Persistent cobalamin deficiency causing failure to thrive in a juvenile beagle’. J Small Anim Pract 200041 (2000): 407-410
12. Kolb E and Seehawer J. ‘Importance and use of B vitamins in cats and dogs’. Translation from: Tierärztl. Umschau 57 (2002)
13. Niki E. ‘Interaction of ascorbate and alpha-tocopherol’. Ann. NY Acad. Sci., 498 (1987): 186-199
14. Jialal I, Devarai S, Venugopal SK. ‘Oxidative stress, inflammation and diabetic vasulopathies: the role of alpha tocopherol therapy’. Free Radic. Res. 36 (2002): 1331-1336
15. Harper J. ‘Dietary antioxidants in cat and dog nutrition’. WALTHAM FOCUS 9 (2) (1999)
16. Rimbach G, Minihane AM, Majewicz J, Fischer A, Pallauf J, Virgil F, Weinberg PD. ‘Regulation of cell signalling by vitamin E’. Nutr. Soc. 61 (2002): 415-425
17. O’Brien T, Thomas DG, Morel PCH, Rutherfurd-Markwick KJ. ‘Moderate dietary supplementation with vitamin E enhances lymphocyte functionality in the adult cat’. Research in veterinary science 99 (2015): 63-69
18. Veldman CM, Cantorna MT & DeLuca HF. ‘Expression of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptor in the immune system’. Arch. Biochem Biophys 374 (2000): 334-338
19. Cantorna MT, Zhu Y, Froicu M & Wittke A. ‘Vitamin D status, 1,25-dihyrdoxy-vitamin D3, and the immune system’. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80 (2004): 1717S-1720S
20. Kolb E and Seehawer J. ‘Utilisation, metabolism, significance and use of D vitamins in the dog and cat’. Translation from:Praktischer Tierarzt 81(7) (2000): 562–572
21. Tengerdy RP, Nockels CF. ‘Vitamin E or vitamin A protects chickens against E. coli infection’. Poultry Science 54 (1975): 1292-1296
22. Tengerdy RP, Brown JC. ‘Effect of vitamin E and A on humoral immunity and phagocytosis in E. coli infected chicken’. Poultry Science 56 (1977): 957-963
23. Tiami H, Chatau MT, Cabanne S, Marti J. Synergistic effect of retinoic acid and 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 on the differentiation of the human monocytic cell line U937. Leuk. Res. 15 (1991): 1145-1152
24. El Attar TMA, Lin HS. Effect of vitamin C and vitamin E on prostaglandin synthesis by fibroblasts and squamous carcinoma cells. Prostaglandins Leukot Med. 47 (1992): 253-257
25. Lynch NR, Salmon JC. Tumor growth inhibition and potentiation of immunotherapy by indomethacin. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 62 (1979): 117-121
26. Gelin J, Anderson C, Lundholm K. ‘Effect of indomethacin, cytokines and cyclosporin A on tumor growth and subsequent development of cancer cachexia. Cancer Res. 51 (1991): 660-663

Effective trace mineral nutrition is vital for healthy and active pets. Ensuring minerals are supplied in the most effective form for optimum bioavailability, stability and delivery will greatly improve the supply of trace minerals to all classes of pets.

Remember when you were young and the grown-ups told you to ‘eat your vegetables’? Other than the well-known addition of fibre to your diet, they also provide you with trace minerals. This natural presentation of trace minerals can bring significant benefits to the pet food industry. (Getty images)

Essential – but dangerous

Trace minerals play a role either structurally, catalytically or functionally with nearly every protein and biochemical process. Iron, zinc, manganese, copper and selenium all play essential roles in the body and supplying them effectively is crucial for healthy pets. Zinc, for example, is involved in more than 3,000 proteins in the body and in the very important processes of gas exchange, DNA transcription, redox, pH homeostasis and cell signalling.

As the name implies, ‘trace’ minerals are only required in very small quantities, and even small deviations in cellular content can result in dysfunction, disease and even death. Trace minerals are some of the most tightly controlled nutrients in the body, from both a legislative and nutritional perspective.

Mimicking nature

Trace element supply is a universal challenge across all pet species and all feed types and presentations, especially where the food is high in fat. Trace minerals are highly reactive with other compounds, resulting in the oxidation of fat, degradation of vitamins, or interaction with one another leading to reduced absorption. They need a strong bond to a partner that still allows them to be absorbed by the digestive system.

In nature, trace minerals begin their journey when rock and soil wear down and the trace minerals literally dissolve. In nature, microorganisms in the soil bind trace minerals to chelating agents. The term ‘chelation’ refers to the act of binding the trace minerals with a favourable organic (i.e. carbon-containing) partner. Strong chelation prevents the highly reactive trace minerals from acting against nutritionally valuable compounds. The now stabilised, yet soluble, trace minerals continue their journey to the roots of plants where they are absorbed.

The similarity between how plants and animals gain access to metals is striking and it is tempting to speculate that this is a general scheme in biology. (See table 1).

Table 1. Mechanisms used for acquiring metals by plants and animals are strikingly similar

Bound, but free

Trace minerals need to be bound to reduce their derogatory effects to other compounds, but to retain their functionality, they must remain available for absorption by the digestive system despite the bond. For that reason, they must remain soluble as solubility facilitates availability. By mimicking the way metals are delivered in nature it is possible to contain their reactivity throughout production, feed storage and digestion, and deliver them just where they are needed. Optimins® from Trouw Nutrition are strongly chelated trace minerals which allow delivery in the right part of the digestive system with high bioavailability, delivering significant benefits (See table 2).

Ideally, trace minerals should remain bound in the optimum form until absorbed by the animal. The strength of the bond is highly important. If the bond with the binding partner (ligand) is weak, then it can be broken and a bond will be made with another available ligand, for example fat, which is then oxidised. The loss in nutritional value is two-fold: less nutrition for the animal and money wasted on trace minerals that are not delivered.

Table 2. Benefits of Optimin® organic trace minerals

The challenge in delivering trace minerals

Essential trace minerals are not inert but are chemically active. Commonly used trace minerals in the pet food industry are in inorganic form, commonly sulphates and oxides. Most inorganic minerals disassociate easily during diet preparation, manufacture, or the digestion process. These dissociated minerals (charged ionic forms) can easily be tied up by dietary antagonists (e.g. phytates, tannins, phosphate, molybdenum) rendering the minerals insoluble and therefore effectively depressing their absorption by the intestinal cells (Erdman 1979; Fernandez and Philips, 1982).

Sulphates easily dissociate when in contact with moisture. Sulphates are also hygroscopic and bind moisture from the air, leading to degradation occurring in premixes before the minerals are used for manufacture of finished products. The attracted moisture can also cause lumps in the premix, and accelerate degradation of vitamins and oxidation of fats.

Oxides present concerns regarding availability. Iron oxide is known to have very poor bioavailability. For manganese there is no data in dogs and cats, but other species show lower bioavailability of oxide compared to sulphate, and chelates having enhanced bioavailability (Henry, 1995). Copper oxide has shown to have low availability in dogs (Fascetti AJ et al. 1998).

Zinc bioavailability is greatly affected by other components in the diet, but there are some studies suggesting zinc oxide has low availability and is prone to antagonistic reactions (Brinkhaus et al., 1998; Lowe et al. 1994; Lowe and Wiseman, 1998, Baker and Ammerman 1995, Lowe, J. A. & Wiseman, J. (1997)), while work in pigs reported similar availability between zinc sulphate and oxide (Baker, 1995).

Building strong bonds

There are various chemical factors affecting the strength of the bond between a trace mineral and its ligand. The major factors are:

1.) pH, the master regulator of speciation (choice of ligand)
2.) Redox potential, how easily electrons are moved between elements and the electrochemical behaviour with other compounds.
3.) Available ligands, types of ligands and ratios of ligands to trace mineral.
4.) Ionic strength, common and counter ions.

The first, diet pH, is by far the most important regulator for speciation and solubility throughout pet food manufacture and the digestive process. Trace mineral chelates and amino acid complexes that are resistant to pH and redox fluctuations are well suited for pet diets. Redox potential is more important for iron and copper and accounts for many of the shelf-life and feeding problems associated with trace minerals. Manganese can be influenced by pH and redox but this has not yet been found to be a major problem in pet foods. Selenium is less affected by these factors because it prefers covalent bonds.

In the late 1950’s organic trace minerals were developed, which were found to reduce many of the problems related to feeding mined minerals. They have several chemical characteristics that make them more suitable than inorganic minerals for pet food such as resistance to chemical changes created by pH and redox fluctuations. In the 1980s, work done by Bo Lonnerdal changed the general thinking about minerals and metal nutrition, leading to the development of organic minerals which more closely replicated natural processes.

It is extremely important to know how different organic sources will respond to a pH challenge. Zinc proves a great subject to illustrate bond strength. Poorly chelated zinc sources can change chemical partners as pH varies during digestion. When changing ligands, zinc can easily lose its ability to remain soluble, reducing its bioavailability to the pet. Unfortunately, not all commercially available organic zinc minerals are resistant to a physiologically relevant pH challenge (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Proportion of zinc remaining bound to its ligand during a physiologically relevant pH challenge

An organic mineral must be able to maintain its structure at reduced pH levels to have any opportunity to survive the harsh environment of manufacture, the gut environment and digestion. Simple complexes such as zinc methionine, which does not qualify as a chelate, cannot survive the pH challenge. Other organic minerals with less appropriate amino acid partners were partially protected from pH modification and had intermediate stability values. However, only Optimins® remained stable when exposed to different physiologically relevant pH levels.

Optimins® organic trace minerals are unique in being bound to multiple oligo-peptides and amino acids rather than single amino-acid linked compounds. Optimins® are the most strongly chelated minerals on the market. Optimins® trace minerals are therefore stable throughout pet food manufacture and do not affect shelf life of the product, while delivering nutritional superiority.

Conclusion

A major challenge of effective trace metal nutrition in pet foods is bonding with a chemical partner, which can occur during diet preparation and digestion. These exchanges can influence metal solubility, redox activities and ultimately the accessibility of the metal for absorption. Both the source of the metals and the composition of the diet can influence the outcome of these interactions.

The sheer number of inorganic and organic trace mineral choices on the market make the process of choosing a trace mineral source even more confusing. There is no class of supplemental essential nutrients with more choices than those found for trace minerals. Trace minerals made utilising chelation avoid many of the hazards regarding metal solubility that can occur during diet preparation and digestion. Chelation strength is directly correlated to the ability of a natural chelate to evade these hazards and potential problems. Optimins® trace elements deliver optimum nutrition for pets where it is needed most.

References

Erdman, J. 1979. Oilseed phytates: Nutritional implications. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Scoety 56:736-741.
Fernandez, R., and Philips, S. 1982. Components of fiber impair iron absorption in the dog. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 35:107-112.
Henry, P. 1995. Manganese bioavailability. Pp. 239-256 in Bioavailability of Nutrients for Animals: Amino Acids, Minerals, Vitamins, C. Ammerman, D. Baker, and A. Lewis, eds. New York: Academic Press.
Fascetti AJ, Morris JG, Rogers QR. (1998) Dietary Copper Influences Reproductive Efficiency of Queens. Journal of Nutrition 128 (12):2590S-2593S.
Brinkhaus, F., Mann J., Zorich, C., and Greaves, J. 1998. Bioavailability of zinc propionate in dogs. Journal of Nutrition 128 (supplement):2596S-2597S.
Lowe, J., Wiseman, J., and Cole, D. 1994. Zinc source influences zinc retention in hair growth in the dog. Journal of Nutrition 124(supplement):2575S-2576S.
Lowe, J., and Wiseman, J. 1998. A comparison of the bioavailability of three dietary zinc sources using four physiologic parameters in dogs. Journal of Nutrition 128(supplement):2809S-2811S.
Baker, D. H. & Ammerman, C. B. (1995) Zinc bioavailability. In: Bioavailability of Nutrients for Animals (Ammerman, C. B., Baker, D. H. & Lewis, A. J., eds.). Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Lowe, J. A. & Wiseman, J. (1997) The effect of the source of dietary supplemental zinc on tissue copper concentration in the rat. Proceedings of the British Society for Animal Science, p. 67.
Baker, D. 1995. Zinc bioavailability. Pp. 367-398 in Bioavailability of Nutrients for Animals: Amino Acids, Minerals, Vitamins, C. Ammerman, D. Baker, and A. Lewis, eds. New York: Academic Press.

In the last decade pet food has experienced a shift toward premiumisation and humanisation. These strong trends are driven by pet owners who consider their pets to be family members, highlighted even more so over the last year. Pet food manufacturers, combining pet needs and pet owners’ desires, have rapidly transferred global food trends from human nutrition to pet food.

According to market research, over 80% of new pet food product launches bear some health-related claims, with 22% being digestive claims (source: Innova Market research, Feb. 2017). In fact, gastrointestinal tract (GIT) disorders are some of the most common reasons for veterinary consultations. Beyond GIT disorders there are some other concerns such as optimal nutrition, obesity, immune defences, healthy aging and stress. The COVID-19 outbreak has emphasised the role that food fortification has on supporting mental well-being and the immune system, the latter already being seen among the top claims in 2019 (source: Euromonitor International, Aug. 2020).

Overall, well-being can be described as a main concern for any pet owner, but what does well-being mean and how can we define pet well-being? There are four main principles commonly used to assess animal well-being: good feeding, good housing, good health and appropriate behaviour. Some of these parameters can be linked to a central organ which is often underestimated: the gut and its billions of inhabitants, the microbiota.
Is there a way to improve pet well-being by shaping their gut microbiota with natural ingredients?

The microbiota: a key player

The digestive tract of dogs and cats harbours a complex community of microorganisms, called the gut microbiota, which plays a crucial role in the host’s overall health. Recent developments in the field of sequencing techniques, with the OMICS revolution, have considerably enlarged our understanding of the microbiota and its potential functions.

The gut microbiota is a dynamic system with great intra- and inter-individual variations. Its three main functions are key to ensuring the maintenance of overall health to the host’s gastrointestinal tract (GIT): 1) metabolic function 2) protective function, and 3) structural function.

The complex interactions between the microbiota, the host immune system and host genetics influence the balance between health and disease. Genetics, age, environment, antibiotics and diet, are some of the factors recognised as affecting the microbiota. For example, it was shown in dogs that a relatively small amount of dietary fibre was able to detectably change the structure of the gut microbiota. In the same way, functional ingredients such as prebiotics and probiotics — well documented to influence the microbiota of many species — have shown positive effects on pet microbiota too, as illustrated by a study in dogs with live yeast S. cerevisiae var. boulardii on the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea (Aktas et al, 2007). Probiotic studies in pets are still scarce, but the volume of literature on the mode of action for many probiotic strains and their effects in humans and other mammals, are a good indicators for their potential in dogs and cats.

Some GIT disorders, both acute and chronic, are well known to be associated with alterations in microbial communities, but it is now increasingly documented that disorders beyond the GIT such as obesity, atopic dermatitis or central nervous disorders, can also be linked to changes in the microbiota. In this context, functional ingredients that are known to influence the microbiota composition such as prebiotics, probiotics, para-probiotics and other nutritional interventions, could offer an alternative approach to tackle these issues.

Interventions: shaping the microbiota

Yeast derivative products are well known for their benefits in animal nutrition: used to help balance the intestinal microflora and help stimulate the host’s natural defences. Research has shown that beneficial effects, such as the specific mode of action for immune system modulation, differ according to the strain of yeast selected, as well as the production process used. Not all yeasts are equal, and that’s why YANG, an innovative prebiotic solution, was developed following an in-depth research and development programme. YANG is a combination of 3 yeast fractions from different strains/ species, acting synergistically to reinforce natural defences and support digestive care. The three yeast fractions were specifically selected for their distinct morpho-functional features: high amounts of adhesive polysaccharide patches and adhesion strength, resulting in the superior binding capacity of YANG, as seen by pathogen agglutination. Combining these specific yeast strains has also been seen to induce a better and more balanced modulation of the immune system by targeting multiple immune receptors at once.

A study conducted in conjunction with the University of Bologna incubated 5 flasks containing canine faecal inoculum and undigested residues from a pre-digested extruded diet, either with YANG at 0.8g YANG/ kg food, or without, in an anaerobic chamber (Biagi et al., 2016; Pinna et al., 2016). Extruded diets were fed for at least 4 weeks prior to faecal collection in order to see an effect on microbiota composition. Total microbial population and beneficial bacteria contents were analysed and showed a significant increase (p<0.05) after 24 hours when YANG was present. These results are promising for the beneficial effect of using YANG to tailor microbiota balance and support digestive well-being through beneficial microbe populations.

The second brain: control of well-being

The brain-gut axis: this is certainly one of the newest and most promising areas of research into the microbiota and probiotics. In 2013, John Cryan and his team coined the term “psychobiotics” to translate this idea. They defined this new class of probiotics as a “live organism that, when ingested in adequate amounts, produces a health benefit in patients suffering from psychiatric illness” (Dinan et al, 2013). In a world where an estimated 29% of pet dogs exhibit signs of anxiety (probably a gross underestimate), and where a large portion of up to 70% of dog behavioural disorders can be attributed to some form of anxiety (Beata et al, 2007), the psychobiotic approach certainly makes sense for pet well-being too.

The crucial role of the microbiota in the brain-gut communication axis has now been demonstrated, as well as its role in anxiety behaviour in humans and rodents. The potential of probiotics to influence this brain-gut axis is a growing field of evidence with the first animal study published in 2006 (Zareie et al, 2006). A few years later the first human studies demonstrated that a probiotic supplement can effectively alleviate both physiological and psychological symptoms of chronic stress (Diop et al, 2008; Messaoudi et al., 2010). To date, more than 50 published studies have evaluated the link between probiotic supplementation and the brain-gut axis, including at least 17 human clinical studies.

One study indicates that 90% of dogs supplemented with the probiotic B. longum showed improvement in day-to-day anxious behaviour including reduction of barking, jumping, spinning and pacing in comparison to a placebo. In addition around 80% showed a decrease in heart rate and an increase in heart rate variability, indicating a more positive response to anxiety (McGowan, 2016). Such a preliminary study is very positive in showing a positive effect on both behavioural and physiological signs of anxiety in dogs.

Conclusion

Such studies presented pave the way for new holistic approaches to modern pet well-being issues by targeting the gut microbiota. Shaping the intestinal microbiota through supplementation with specific functional ingredients could be a way to optimize overall pet health and consequently improve their wellbeing. Lallemand, an expert in the development of microbial based solutions for animal and human nutrition has developed a platform of natural, research-backed pet nutrition solutions to support immunity, alleviate oxidative stress and support digestive comfort targeting pet well-being (see table). We offer specific technical support and expertise in functional ingredients to help manufacturers address the growing market demand for pet well-being products.

References available upon request from: fsusca@lallemand.com

Probiotics are live micro-organisms which, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit to the animal. Probiotics support the development of a healthy microbiota in the digestive tract of the dog. As a result, probiotics have a beneficial effect on the health and well-being of the dog and improve various faecal characteristics. To provide pets with adequate amounts of the probiotic, it is not enough to only incorporate a minimum level of the probiotic during production of a pet food, treat or supplement. This implies that the probiotic would survive the production process and the long shelf-life expected of pet products. Additionally, the probiotic must stay alive in the complete gastro-intestinal tract of the animal.

Spore-forming probiotics have the major advantage of being highly stable. The spore is a natural protecting shield of the micro-organism itself. This makes spore-forming probiotics less sensitive to the acidic gastric fluid and the harsh conditions during the pet food manufacturing processes. Also, they are better able to maintain their viability in pet products over a long shelf-life.

Probiotic health benefit

Health and well-being of the dog is closely related to a healthy and stable microbiota in the digestive tract. The microbiota is a large community of living microbes in the intestinal tract of animals. This microbiota has a symbiotic relationship with the host and supports in the digestion of food, plays an important role in the immune function and helps to protect the animal against infections. Disturbance of the microbiota can lead to discomfort for both dog and owner. The consistency of the faeces can become too watery (diarrhea) or too hard (constipation) and can be accompanied by a strong unpleasant smell. Promoting the development of beneficial bacteria and increasing microbial diversity, supports a normal and stable microbiota, thereby supporting the health and well-being of the dog (Figure 1).

Figure 1: A normal and stable microbiota support dog health and well-being

Calsporin®, the EU registered probiotic for use in dog food, contains the specifically selected strain Bacillus subtilis C-3102. This spore-forming probiotic has been proven to stabilize the gut microbiota in dogs. Providing Calsporin® to dogs results in an enriched microbiota and increased microbial diversity1. Higher microbial diversity is an important gut health parameter, as it makes the microbiota less susceptible for gut disorders. A greater abundance of the commonly accepted beneficial microbial groups Bacteroides, Faecalibacterium and Allobaculum increased in dogs fed with Calsporin® (1).

Supporting a healthy and more stable microbiota is often characterised by improved digestion of the food. Addition of Bacillus subtilis C-3102 to a pet diet significantly improved the apparent digestibility of ether extract and nitrogen-free extract in a study in dogs. Digestibility of dry matter and organic matter tended to improve and observations reveal positive effects on crude fibre and crude protein digestibility (2).

As a result of a stable gut microbiota and optimized digestion, Calsporin® improves faecal consistency of dogs and results in more well-formed stools. Droppings are more consistent and easier to pick up (1, 2, 3) (Figure 2). Odorous components, like ammonia and branched chain fatty acids, are significantly lower in the faeces of dogs receiving the probiotic in their diet (1, 2, 3). A panel of volunteers confirmed that the stool of dogs fed with Calsporin® had a less intense odour compared with the faeces of dogs receiving the same diet without Calsporin® 1 (Figure 3). A lower production of these odorous components is not only pleasant for the dog owner but the lower production of harmful gasses also benefits the intestinal health of the dog.

Figure 2: Calsporin® increases the rate of well-formed stools
(p < 0.05)

The improvement in faecal consistency is also beneficial for dogs with chronic incidences of diarrhea. In a field-study, dogs with more severe diarrhea at the start of the trial, showed the best improvements on faecal consistency during the trial period when receiving Bacillus subtilis C-3102 in a supplement. The probiotic also positively influenced the coat condition, resulting in a more shiny and bright coat in the Calsporin® treated group (4).

Figure 3: Less intense faecal odour by using Calsporin® in petfood (p < 0.05)

Gastro-intestinal tract survivors

For a probiotic effect in the animal, the live micro-organism should survive the complete gastro-intestinal tract. Some discussions for example exist about the survival of lactic acid producing species, used in human nutrition, in the stomach environment. In vitro tests, simulating the stomach and small intestinal environment, confirm the resistance of Bacillus subtilis C-3102 to gastric acids and bile salts. Measuring colony forming units (CFU) in the faeces of dogs fed with Calsporin®, confirms the survival of Bacillus subtilis C-3102 over the complete digestive tract (Table 1). A colony can only be formed and counted in a laboratory, when a micro-organism is alive and able to grow.

Some questions arise about the viability of probiotics when dogs also receive an antibiotic treatment. Frequently, antibiotics are not only effective against the pathogenic bacterial species, they can also harm the beneficial microbial species. As a result, antibiotic use, can lower variation of microbes and after the antibiotic treatment the microbiota needs to stabilize without development of opportunistic pathogens. Use of a probiotic during or after an antibiotic treatment may be desirable, as a probiotic will help to stabilize the microbiota again by increasing microbial diversity and stimulating the growth of beneficial bacteria. However, if used simultaneously, the probiotic should not be killed by the antibiotic treatment.

Table 1: Addition of Calsporin to a diet increases the Bacilllus subtilis C-3102 counts in fresh dog faeces, confirming the survival of the probiotic in the digestive tract.

A spore-former is a viable solution for petfood

To be effective, the probiotics have to stay alive during the harsh manufacturing processes of food or supplements. Calsporin® is extensively tested in different types of feed and petfood products. The robust spore-forming probiotic is thermostable and resists temperatures up to 100℃. Appropriate for the application in pellets, treats and pressed tablets. This is in contrast to non-spore forming probiotics, which are already killed at lower temperatures.

The spores are more sensitive to extreme high temperatures in combination with rapid changes in pressure, which limits the applicability in the extrusion process. In order to overcome this limitation, application through different coating strategies have been examined and developed. Tested strategies included dry and liquid palatants, different types of fats and oils, and combinations of these topical applications. As a result it is shown that all different types of coatings are applicable for a homogeneous distribution of viable spores of Calsporin® (Figure 4). Cooperation with key manufacturers of palatability enhancers has resulted in direct to use commercial powder and liquid palatants with adequate, viable amounts of Calsporin®. Palatants are a straightforward application for the use of Calsporin® in the production process of extruded kibbles.

Figure 4. Topical solutions for homogenous application of Calsporin® on extruded kibbles

Losses of viability of probiotics can occur during the storage of feed, for example after opening of the package or with storage under more severe conditions with high temperatures and/ or high relative humidity. Findings underscore that the Bacillus subtilis C-3102 spores are highly stable for different applications and forms in which the product is stored. Calsporin® spores have proven to be stable and viable for more than 2 years (Figure 5).

Summary

A well-formulated dog diet containing the stable and viable Bacillus subtilis C-3102 supports a healthy and stable gut microbiota in dogs. This will not only benefit the well-being of the dog, firmer stools and lower faecal odour is also highly appreciated by dog owners. A challenge is to keep the probiotic alive in the gastro-intestinal tract and during the harsh production process and long shelf-life of petfood products. The spore-forming probiotic Calsporin® is a viable solution for multiple applications in dog food products!

Figure 5: Stability of Calsporin® in petfood during shelf-life

References

1. Lima, D.C. de, et al. Dietary supplementation with Bacillus subtilis C-3102 improves gut health indicators and fecal microbiota of dogs. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 270, 2020, 114672, p. 114672.
2. Schauf, S., Nakamura, N. and Castrillo, C. Effect of Calsporin (Bacillus subtilis C-3102) addition to the diet on faecal quality and nutrient digestibility in healthy adult dogs. Journal of Applied Animal Nutrition. 2019, Vol. 7, e3.
3. Felix, A.D., et al. Digestibility and fecal characteristics of dogs fed with Bacillus subtilis in diet. Ciencia Rural, Santa Maria. v40, n 10, p 2169-2173, 2010.
4. Paap, P.M., et al. Administration of Bacillus subtilis C-3102 (Calsporin) may improve feces consistency in dogs with chronic diarrhea. Res. Opin. Anim. Vet. Sci. 6 (8): 256-260, 2016.

Introduction

Even though soybean meal and other soy products are commonly used in feed production, soy, in part, still has a negative image in pet food. However, soy is about to experience a renaissance in the pet food industry, which is possibly related to a new generation of pet owners without prejudices, an improvement in quality of soy products, and an enhanced knowledge about soy products as ingredients for companion animals. Although, in Europe, soybean is still a minor component for pet food, in the US approximately 3 % of their soybean production is used for pet food (Hill, 2004).

A variety of soy-based products are available on the market. Soybean meal (SBM) is a by-product of the soy oil industry with a high CP level. Soy protein concentrate (SPC) is produced to further increase the protein content of SBM, as well as to reduce remaining anti-nutritional factors. Therefore, SPC is an ingredient with high amino acid digestibility in dogs. Moreover, SPC has proven good extrusion functionality.

What is the difference between Soybean meal and Soy protein concentrate?

SBM is produced from the residue left after oil extraction from soybean. In general, SBM is already a safe ingredient, which is mainly used as a protein source in animal feed. SBM is attractive for the pet food industry as a vegetable protein source because its amino acid profile is relatively close to the profile of meat (see Table 1).

Soybean contains trypsin-inhibitors which can interfere with the protein digestion. To denature the trypsin-inhibitors, soybean meal must be heat-treated during the production process. However, high processing temperatures and duration of heat treatment can drastically reduce the amino acid digestibility of the final product. Furthermore, soybean contains non-starch polysaccharides (e.g. stachyose and raffinose) which cannot be removed by heat-treatment, which are known as anti-nutritional factors.

Consequently, there has been intensive research into improving the digestibility of soy through processing. After the oil extraction, the remaining SBM will be treated with ethanol instead of heat (toasting) to flush out anti-nutritional factors. In the case of CJ Selecta SPC, the product also gets micronized to produce the optimal particle size. This processing is suitable for all origins of soy, so the final product can be GMO SPC or a NON-GMO SPC. With the ethanol extraction method, it is possible to remove most of the carbohydrate fraction (including stachyose and raffinose) and to enhance the nutritional value (see Table 2).

Table 1: Amino acid composition of selected ingredients [% as fed basis]

Functionality in extrusion process

Venturini et al. (2018) evaluated the processing traits of increasing amounts of SPC against a diet based on poultry by-product meal. Regarding the extrusion parameters, extruder motor amperage and the temperature of extrusion was lower for the diet based on poultry by-products rather than the diets based on SPC. The inclusion of vegetable protein also leads to changes in the kibble formation and to a favourable higher starch gelatinization. This fits very well with former descriptions about functional soy protein acting as a cohesive network to increase stability of the kibbles (Riaz and Rokey, 2012). This is especially important when the fat content of the formulation is low because of the inclusion of vegetable protein instead of meat by-products with a high fat content. The results demonstrated that SPC has a good extrusion functionality in comparison to a diet based on poultry by-product meal.

Table 2: Comparison of average analytical values of soybean meal and soy protein concentrate (CJ Selecta X-Soy)

Palatability and digestibility of SPC

In a trial with 37 trained dogs, the palatability of diets with high inclusion rates of SPC (18.7 % of the diet) was compared with pet food based on corn gluten meal and poultry by-product meal using the two-bowl-method (Venturini et al., 2018). Dog´s preferred diets containing poultry by-product to diets containing corn gluten meal. However, there was no statistical difference for first choice and ingested quantities between diets containing SPC or diets based on poultry by-product meal (Venturini et al., 2018). Thus, pet food containing SPC can have a palatability like a diet based on animal protein.

The same working group also evaluated the digestibility in vivo. The Coefficients of total tract apparent digestibility for dry matter, fat, crude protein, and crude energy did not differ statistically between the diets based on poultry by-product meal, corn gluten meal, and SPC as main ingredients. Only organic matter showed slightly higher digestibility coefficients for corn gluten meal compared with SPC (Venturini et al., 2018). In an earlier study (Clapper et al., 2001), SPC had even a higher crude protein digestibility compared with poultry by-product meal. Thus, digestibility of a diet based on SPC is comparable to a diet based on classic pet food ingredients like corn gluten meal and poultry by-product meal.

Conclusion

SPC is an ingredient which is characterized through a low nutrient fluctuation and a stable supply. Even high SPC inclusion rates have no negative impact on the palatability of final food. Digestibility coefficients of diets based on SPC were comparable with diets based on poultry by-product meal as a protein source. Through its good extrusion functionality with beneficial impact on kibble formation, SPC is a useful vegetable protein supplement for the pet food industry.

References

Venturini, K. S., Sarcinelli, M. F., Baller, M. A., Putarov, T. C., Malheiros, E. B., & Carciofi, A. C. (2018). Processing traits and digestibility of extruded dog foods with soy protein concentrate. Journal of animal physiology and animal nutrition, 102(4), 1077-1087.
Riaz, M. N., and G. J. Rokey. 2012. Extrusion problems solved: Food, ped food and feed. UK: Woodhead Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857095206.
Hill, D. 2004. Alternative proteins in companion animal nutrition. In Pet Food Association of Canada Fall Conference.
National Research Council. 2006. Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Clapper, G. M., Grieshop, C. M., Merchen, N. R., Russett, J. C., Brent Jr, J. L., and G. C. Fahey Jr. 2001. Ileal and total tract nutrient digestibilities and fecal characteristics of dogs as affected by soybean protein inclusion in dry, extruded diets. Journal of animal science, 79(6), 1523-1532.

To answer the increasing demand for proteins worldwide, we need to look for innovative alternatives that are more sustainable than current sources. Beyond humans, livestock and pets are drivers in this rising demand. Another growing trend is that pet owners want to buy food for their beloved pets containing high quality ingredients while at the same time reducing its environmental impact. To answer these needs, insects can be added to the diet of pets. Insects are a novel source of nutrients that is produced sustainably, and which is tasty for pets. They can be used as a natural alternative to animal proteins and vegetable oils.

Sustainability

Insects are more sustainable for several reasons. Firstly, insects can turn low value feed materials and related by-products into high value insect protein and oil. They are fed with by-products, not suitable for other livestock, which otherwise would have gone to lower value productions such as bio-refineries. Secondly, insect breeding is a zero-waste and circular process. There are three final products produced from insects: insect protein, insect oil and organic fertilizer. Insect protein and oil are used as natural and sustainable alternative ingredients in livestock feed and pet food. The frass, which is the manure and the leftovers from the insect breeding, is used as an organic fertilizer to grow new crops, of which again the lowest value by-products are used for feeding new batches of insects. It is a fully circular model! But sustainability of insect-based ingredients can even go beyond circularity and upgrading of low value by-products.

The industrial symbiosis model of InnovaFeed

Industrial symbiosis

At Barentz Animal Nutrition, we are partnering with InnovaFeed, a highly innovative company, that has developed a unique production process based on an industrial symbiosis model. Their insect production site is directly connected with the next-door starch manufacturer, allowing agricultural by-products feeding the insects to be delivered to InnovaFeed’s facility through a direct pipeline, effectively eliminating transportation and thus significantly reducing their carbon footprint. To go one step further, InnovaFeed also connected its production site with the next-door power plant providing them with residual heat that would otherwise have gone into the atmosphere. This allows the saving of a lot on energy and carbon emissions. With this unique model, InnovaFeed produces their insect protein and oil with a stunning reduction of 80% in their carbon footprint!

Versatile ingredient

These insect ingredients come from the black soldier larvae, Hermetia Illucens, which has many nutritional benefits. The insect protein is highly digestible and has very balanced amino acid profile very much comparable to fish meal. Due to this amino acid profile the product is also high palatable. This high-quality insect protein fits perfectly in hypo-allergenic diets, because insect protein is an innovative ingredient, and most animals haven’t been exposed to this protein source before. This makes insect protein very versatile, since it is tasty, nutritious, and functional. The oil also has nutritional benefits thanks to its high level of medium chain fatty acids that makes it easily digestible. Insect oil is also rich in lauric acid (C12-fatty acid), which is known for its antibacterial properties and thus improves gut health of animals. Insect protein and oil are both free of any unwanted substances and can be used in combination as high-quality, nutritious and sustainable ingredients to replace animal and vegetable meal and oils in certain livestock feed and pet food.

Douglas Martin, founder and managing director of MiAlgae, explains how his University of Edinburgh biotech start-up is turning algae into nutritious pet food using a by-product from the Scotch whisky industry.

Walking around a fish market is an experience that can stimulate the senses: there’s the sight of the weird and wonderful fish of all shapes and sizes lined up in their containers; there’s the noise from the buyers and sellers haggling over prices at the auction; there’s the smell of the sea filling the air as the latest catch is landed.

Sadly, not all of those fish at the market will end up being lowered into a chip shop’s deep-fat frier or making it onto the kitchen’s pass at a high-end restaurant. Instead, much of the fish that can’t be sold – either through lack of demand or because there’s no quota available – will be ground up and turned into fishmeal, which will be used as pet food, animal feed, or even food for farmed fish.

Turning wild fish into feed for other animals is simply unsustainable. Already, around 90% of the world’s fish stocks are over-exploited or fully depleted, giving rise to the need for quotas in the first place. As conservationist Sir David Attenborough has reminded us in countless television series, the very future of our seas lies in our hands.

That desire to prevent the over-harvesting of fish was one of my motivations for founding MiAlgae in 2016. My biotechnology company uses algae to create a feedstock that’s rich in Omega-3 oils, just like wild caught fish. And we make that nutrient-packed feed with a little help from Scotland’s national drink – whisky.

The romance and reality of whisky

There’s a romantic side to making whisky. Millions of tourists each year enjoy taking tours around distilleries tucked away in the Highland glens, peering in at the oak casks as they slumber in their vast warehouses, before enjoying a dram of the amber nectar by the fireside back in the comfort of their hotels.

Yet whisky – like any other industrial process – creates by-products that need to be handled in a safe and environmentally-sustainable way. In the past, wastewater from distilleries could simply be released into the local river or loch or sea, but now more stringent environmental protection laws mean that waste needs to be taken away for treatment and disposal.

These rules – which are designed to increase water quality, especially on beaches, bringing benefits to both people and our environment – can lead to an expensive headache for whisky distilleries. Those same rules also lead to an exciting opportunity though.

As a company at the forefront of creating a “circular economy”, in which the waste products from one industry can be turned into the raw materials for another, our company can provide a solution for these distilleries. In effect, we’re taking a “by-product” and turning it into a “co-product”.

How that wastewater is created

It’s fascinating to think that Scotch whisky – the bedrock of a massive industry, which exported the equivalent of 1.14 billion bottles last year [2020] – is made from three simple ingredients: malted barley, water, and yeast. By law, it can only be made in Scotland and must age for at least three years in oak barrels before it can make the magical transition from “new-make spirit” to “Scotch whisky”.

To begin the process, barley is soaked in warm water until it germinates, with a wee shoot poking out from the grain, signalling that the starches in the cereal are being converted into the sugars that are needed to make alcohol. Germination is then halted by drying the grains in a kiln; in the past, these fires would have been lit using peat, which gave a smoky flavour to the barley, but now most distilleries burn gas or kerosene, with peated whiskies confined mostly to the island of Islay in the Inner Hebrides chain off the west coast.

This malted barley, or malt, is then ground down and added to warm water to make a “mash”, dissolving the sugars into a liquid called the “wort”, which is drawn off. The grain that’s left over is called “draff” and is turned into pellets and sold to farmers as protein-rich feed for their cattle.

Yeast is then added to the wort to ferment those sugars into alcohol – in effect, making a strong beer or “wash” that can then be distilled to create a spirit. At its simplest level, distillation involves heating the wash in a big, oddly-shaped copper kettle known as a “still”, with the spirit collected after it has evaporated and condensed before being transferred into wooden casks to slumber for at least three years.